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Shape Function Interpolation

Displacement shape or interpolation functions are a central feature of the displacement-based finite element method. They primarily characterise the assumptions regarding the variation of displacements within each element. Because of their relationship with displacements, the variation of both strains and stresses is also consequently defined.

The basic assumption of the finite element method is that the subdivision of a complex physical structure into the assembly of a number of simple “elements” will approximate the behaviour of the structure. Because of this subdivision, each finite element need not attempt to simulate the complex behaviour of the whole structure but, rather, assumes a relatively simple displacement variation so that the sum of the individual finite element responses approximates the response of the whole structure.

Shape functions are polynomial expressions. Any order of polynomial can theoretically be used but, in general, linear and quadratic variations are most common. It is from the order of the shape function polynomial that the terms linear and quadratic elements originate.

A consequence of these assumed displacement variations enables the finite element method to be able to solve the equilibrium equations at discrete points, thus transforming a continuous “physical” system (having infinite degree of freedom) into something manageable for numerical procedures.

Typically, LUSAS uses Lagrangian shape functions which provide C(0) continuity between elements (primary variables only, and not their derivatives, are continuous across element boundaries). Shape functions are defined in terms of the natural coordinate system (x) for line elements (bars, beams), (x, h) for surface elements (shells, plates, plane membranes) (x, h, z) and for volume elements (solids).

For many two-noded line elements a linear variation is assumed as follows

 

Where N1 and N2 are the shape functions at nodes 1 and 2 of the element respectively (the order being dependent on the element node numbering). Diagrammatically, their variation is as follows

Linear variations are also used on four-noded surface elements as follows

Three-noded line elements typically assume a quadratic variation as follows

 

 

Where N1, N2 and N3 are the shape functions at nodes 1, 2 and 3 of the element respectively. Diagrammatically, their variation is as follows

Quadratic variations are also used on eight-noded surface elements. The following diagrams show the variations of the shape functions at both corner and midside nodes

Shape functions need to have the following characteristics

This means that the value of each shape function evaluated at its nodal position must be unity. For example

Requires that the values of each shape function, evaluated at the other nodes must be zero. That is

The sum of all the shape functions, evaluated at any point must be unity. That is

Furthermore, to ensure that a finite element convergences to the correct result, certain requirements need to be satisfied by the shape functions, as follows

The displacement function should be such that it does not permit straining of an element to occur when the nodal displacements are caused by rigid body displacement. This is self evident, since an unsupported structure in space will be subject to no restraining forces

The displacement function should be of such a form that if nodal displacements produce a constant strain condition, such constant strain will be obtained. This is essential since a significant mesh refinement will cause near-constant strain conditions to occur in elements and they must be able to handle this condition correctly

The displacement function should ensure that the strains at the interface between elements are finite (even though indeterminate). By this, the element boundaries will have no “gaps” appear between them and, hence, will show a continuous mesh.

The following sections deal with some of the more frequently encountered practical implications that are related to the use of shape functions.

Implication:  The evaluation of element displacements

The isoparametric element formulation assumes that

Where {u} are the displacements at any point within an element and {d} are the displacements at the nodes of an element.

This equation relates the displacements at any point within an element to the nodal displacements according to the element shape function [N]. Therefore, the displacement at any point (x) in a 2-noded line element can be obtained from the nodal values using the following equation

If this element is fully fixed at one end (d1=0) and sustains a displacement of 2 at the other end (d2=2), the displacement at the centre of this element (x=0) would be given thus

i.e. half the end displacement as expected.

The same can be done with any quantity that varies across an element, for example, coordinates, strain, stress, and thickness.

Implication:  Linear Versus Quadratic Elements?

Consider a 3-noded element that uses a quadratic shape function variation of the form

The quadratic terms (x) in thus giving a corresponding quadratic variation of displacement over the element. The strain variation can be defined as

Where [B] is that strain-displacement matrix and {d} are the three element axial displacements. It can be seen from the x terms that the strain is now a linear variation – as will be the stress variation. In a similar manner, for a linear element, the strain and stress variation will be constant.

This has a direct bearing on the type of element to be chosen for an analysis. For instance, consider a bar element under the action of a constant uniformly distributed load along the length of the element. The resulting axial force variation will be theoretically linear as in the topmost picture of the following diagram.

If this bar is modelled using linear elements (i.e. linear terms in the shape function), the axial force will be approximated by a constant, “stepped” response in each element, since the shape function derivatives only contain constant terms. A quadratic element (i.e. quadratic terms in the shape function) will, however, support a linear response and provide the correct answer directly, since the shape function derivatives contain linear terms. Thus, the exact solution can be obtained with a relatively small number of elements (or even with one element only) if the actual strain field can be matched by the shape functions of the element that is being used. In the above example, the shape function derivative terms did indeed match the linear strain of the actual analysis.

A frequent observation when inspecting force output at a simply supported section of a structure is to find (unexpectedly) non-zero values. Depending on the degree of mesh refinement, these values can be significant compared to the peak values. The reason is directly related to the above discussion. For example, if the force distribution is at least quadratic in form and linear elements are used (typically supporting a constant force distribution), a stepped response will be seen – hence the non-zero values – these constant values represent an average of the force distribution and, if summed across the structure would be found to be equilibrium. The use of quadratic elements will improve the situation, but even these will not be able to match 3rd order or higher force distributions without a measure of mesh refinement performed.

In spite of this sort of discrepancy, it should be noted that, during the solution stage, the equilibrium equation is used ({f}= [K] {d}) to ensure that the product of the stiffness matrix and the computed displacements exactly balances the externally applied forces. This means that, unless there are pertinent warnings or errors output during the solution, static equilibrium will have been fully achieved. Moreover, the derived quantities of strain and stress will also be found to be in equilibrium – but not necessarily according to an expected distribution as noted in preceding paragraphs. See “Finite Element Equilibrium” for more information.

Similar difficulties can be observed when attempting to compare the reactions at a location in a structure with the element force output at the same location. The explanation in most cases is, again, related to the order of shape function that has been used to formulate the element. See “finite element equilibrium” for more information.

The remedies are to either increase the number of linear elements used (and reduce the size of the “step change” between each element) or change to quadratic elements (to more closely match the actual variation). The specific element NOTES section in the LUSAS Element Library Manual will typically give details on the variation of force that is supported by each element.

Apart from the consideration of element selection related to the order of shape function, quadratic elements would be recommended in the presence of high degrees of plastic strain since they are less susceptible to “locking”. Linear elements, however, would be recommended when the stress distributions anticipated are constant or linear. Such elements are computationally cheaper and, in such circumstances, render the use of higher order elements unnecessary.

For a discussion on the effects of stress smoothing (averaging) in the presence of discontinuous stress fields between elements see “finite element equilibrium”.

Implication:  Nodal Temperature Loading With Temperature Dependent Materials

Although the temperature loading is defined at element nodes, it is actually used by LUSAS at a Gauss point level. The nodal temperature loading is interpolated from the nodes to the Gauss points using the element shape functions.

The presence of significant temperature loading distributions over higher order elements can cause negative temperature loading to be applied at the Gauss points – even though the applied temperature field is entirely positive in magnitude. Such negative temperatures can be unexpectedly out of the user-specified temperature dependent material property table.

As an example, consider the situation described in the first of the following diagrams. The temperature loading is applied at the nodes as shown.

As a result of the quadratic displacement assumption used in higher order elements, the interpolation to the Gauss points yields the variation of temperature across the length of the element as shown.

This variation will ensure that the applied temperature loading is applied correctly to the structure, but for the Gauss points nearest to the zero temperature specification, a WARNING message will be output to the LUSAS output file as follows

***Warning*** Element Number 1, Material Number 1, Gauss Point 1, Temperature Load Of -3.2 Degrees Outside Upper Temperature Bound Of 0 Degrees Specified In Table. The Material Properties Corresponding To The Upper Bound Temperature Are Used

For most cases the negative value is insignificant compared to the temperature loading specified and the variation in the temperature dependency of the material properties. Mesh refinement in the area of the greatest temperature variations is the most appropriate method for eliminating these warnings.

Implication:  Element Thickness Interpolation

Although the thickness for an element is defined at element nodes, it is actually used by LUSAS at a Gauss point level. The thickness is interpolated from the nodes to the Gauss points using the element shape functions.

For a constant thickness element, the interpolation will always produce the same constant value at the Gauss points. For a varying thickness over an element, the actual thickness used will not be that specified at the nodes, but rather an interpolated value. See the top diagram below.

When using the quadratic displacement assumption used in higher order elements, the interpolation to the Gauss points yields the variation of thickness across the element as shown in the second picture (above). The effect of a significant variation of thickness over a single element may, thus, cause a zero or negative thickness value at a Gauss point. If this occurs the following error message will be seen in the LUSAS output file

*Error*** Nodal Or Interpolated Thicknes Is Zero Or Negative

The remedy is to check that the thickness variation applied to the specified element is applied correctly. If so, then the mesh should be refined to reduce the severity of the thickness variation over the element.


Finite Element Theory Contents

Isoparametric Finite Element Formulation

Natual Coordinate System

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